Outdoor Education R&E Center

Theories of Outdoor Education

James Neill
Last updated:
27 Jan 2008

Contents

• Overview
  Experience, nature, & multidimensional theory.
• Black box theory
  All theory sits in a mysterious black box.
• Historical roots of challenge education
  Explores historical-theoretical roots.
• References
  Theory articles & books.

What's New?

• A critique of neo-Hahnian outdoor education theory. Part one: challenges to the concept of ‘character building’
  (Andrew Brookes, 2003, Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 3(1),49-62; [pdf; .2MB])
  

  'Neo-Hahnian' (NH) beliefs assume that adventure experiences 'build character', 'develop persons', 'actualise selves', or have therapeutic effects associated with changes in personal traits. In social psychological terms NH thought is 'dispositional' in that it favors explanations of behaviour in terms of consistent personal traits. This paper critically reviews NHism in a psychosocial-historical context, and counters that outdoor adventure education programs do not build character, but may provide situations that elicit particular behaviours. Brookes concludes that belief in the possibility of 'character building' is a source of bias, not a foundation of outdoor education.

• A psycho-evolutionary theory of outdoor education
  (James Neill, Tonia Gray, Graham Ellis-Smith, Jason Bocarro, Ricardo Sierra, & Kaushal, 2nd International Outdoor Education Conference, Bendigo, Australia, July 6-9, 2004)
  

  Introduces the tenets of psycho-evolutionary theory (PET), the underlying rationale, and the implications for research and practice.  PET views outdoor education programs as a phenomenon of post-industrial society -- a semi-ritualistic, compensatory effort to reconnect with nature.  However, for the full power of outdoor education to be realised, it needs to focus on helping people understand their intra-indigenous consciousness, i.e., their deep knowing which can be unlocked through experiential rediscovery of our indigenous psyche.

• Outdoor education theories & their role in program design & delivery
  (Ozgur Akbas, May, 2004, European Association for Experiential Education Conference, Czech Republic)

Categories

1. Wilderness & nature
2. Learning & education
3. Psycho-experiential
4. Psycho-social
5. Facilitation
6. Multi-dimensional

1. Wilderness, Environment & Nature

Theories which focus on the influence of the natural environment on human thinking and behavior.

• Novel environment
  (various, 1960's-2000s)
• Nature theory
  ("Nature is good" or "Garden of Eden" theory, 1960's-2000s)
• Biophilia hypothesis
  (E. O. Wilson, 1990's-2000's)
• Psycho-evolutionary
  (James Neill et al, 2004)

2. Learning & Education

Theories which focus on experience, learning and change.

• Experiential learning & experiential education
  (James Neill, 2006)
• Continuity and interaction
  (John Dewey, 1938)
• Experiential learning cycles
  (Kolb, 1980s-2000s)
• Scale of experientiality
  (Gibbons & Hopkins, 1980)
• Conscious competence learning model
  (1970s?)

3. Psycho-Experiential Theory

Theories which focus on the psychological and experiential nature of challenging group experiences in nature.

• Unfreeze-change-refreeze
  (Kurt Lewin / Rhodes, 1950's)
• Training the mind through the body
  (Kurt Hahn, 1930's-1960's)
• Reason for freezin'
  (Don Kesselheim, 1974)
• Adventure Experience Paradigm
  (Simon Priest, 1980s-1990's)
• Resilience & outdoor education
  (James Neill, 2004)
• Neo-Hahnian Critique
  (Andrew Brookes, 2003)

4. Psycho-Social Theory

Theories which focus on social psychology, sociology, and anthropology.

• Field theory
  (Kurt Lewin, 1950's)
• Growth = Challenge + Support
  (James Neill, 2000's)
• Rites of passage
  (Maddern; Van Gennep, 1950's-2000's)

5. Facilitation

Theories which focus on the role played by the facilitator(s).

• Adventure Wave
  (Schoel, Prouty, & Radcliffe, 1980's-2000's)
• Six generations of facilitation
  (Priest & Gass, 1990's-2000's)
• Metaphorical
  (Stephen Bacon, 1980's)

6. Multi-dimensional Theories

Theories which focus on synthesizing multiple elements into a greater whole, often based on elements-of-practice models.

• Outward Bound process model
  (Walsh & Golins, 1976)
• 12 reasons why experiential learning is effective
  (Luckner & Nadler, 1990's)
• Ingredients of Outdoor Adventure
  (Barret & Greenaway, 1995)
• Double Diamond Model
  (Itin & Bandoroff, 1990's)
• Hattie, et al (1997)
  (engaging experiences, difficult goals, high quality and quantity of feedback, reassessment of coping skills)
• Learning Combination Lock
  (Beard & Wilson, 2000's)
• 11 factors that influence the effects of outdoor education
  (James Neill, 2000's)
• Systems framework for outdoor education
  (James Neill, 2004)
• More elements which rattle around in the black box
  (James Neill, 2003)
• Outward Bound philosophy & theory